Land Tenure, Inequality, and Climate Vulnerability: How Insecure Land Rights Heighten Farmers' Vulnerability to Climate-Related Shocks in Post-Apartheid South Africa

Land Tenure, Inequality, and Climate Vulnerability: How Insecure Land Rights Heighten Farmers' Vulnerability to Climate-Related Shocks in Post-Apartheid South Africa.

Special Report Written By Bhekisisa Mncube

The relationship between land tenure security and climate resilience has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges facing South Africa's agricultural sector since the end of apartheid. As climate change intensifies across the subcontinent, bringing unprecedented droughts, erratic rainfall patterns, and extreme weather events, the country's farming communities find themselves caught between the legacy of historical land dispossession and the mounting pressures of environmental uncertainty. This investigation reveals how insecure land rights fundamentally undermine farmers' capacity to adapt to climate-related shocks, perpetuating cycles of vulnerability that threaten both livelihoods and food security across the nation.

The scale of this challenge cannot be overstated. According to recent government statistics, 72% of South Africa's farms and agricultural holdings remain in white ownership despite this group comprising only 7.3% of the population. Meanwhile, black Africans, who constitute 81.4% of the population, control only 4% of agricultural land. This stark inequality in land distribution, rooted in the apartheid system's deliberate dispossession policies, continues to shape vulnerability patterns decades after the transition to democracy.

Research conducted across South Africa's provinces reveals that land tenure insecurity poses a significant barrier to climate adaptation, particularly for smallholder farmers and communal land users. The evidence suggests that without secure land rights, farmers lack both the incentive and capacity to invest in long-term climate adaptation measures, leaving them exposed to increasingly volatile environmental conditions. 

Historical Context: The Apartheid Legacy and Land Dispossession

The foundations of contemporary land tenure insecurity can be traced directly to apartheid-era legislation that systematically dispossessed black South Africans of their ancestral lands. The 1913 Natives Land Act stands as perhaps the most devastating piece of legislation in this regard, restricting African land ownership to just 7% of the country's total area, which was later expanded to 13% through the 1936 Native Trust and Land Act.

These laws did not merely redistribute land; they fundamentally restructured the relationship between people and the environment upon which their livelihoods depended. As documented by land reform researchers, more than 3.5 million people were forcibly removed between 1960 and 1983 alone through homeland consolidation, removals from "black spots", and the Group Areas Act. This massive displacement disrupted traditional farming systems, severed connections to ancestral territories, and created the preconditions for contemporary climate vulnerability.

The apartheid government's land policies were inextricably linked to labour control mechanisms, deliberately undermining subsistence agriculture in the former homelands whilst subsidising white commercial farming. This dual approach created a racially stratified agricultural sector where white commercial farmers enjoyed access to extensive land holdings, ample water supplies, cheap labour, and state support. In contrast, black farmers were confined to overcrowded, ecologically marginal areas with minimal institutional backing. 

Contemporary research reveals the enduring impacts of this historical dispossession. Marc Wegerif of the Nkuzi Development Association argues that "there is still very much a legacy of apartheid coming through" in current land dynamics. His analysis of post-1994 farm evictions demonstrates that "it is a continuation of apartheid geography because black people continue today to be removed from white farms in white areas and end up in black townships". According to the National Evictions Survey, conducted by the Nkuzi Development Association and Social Surveys, just under 1.7 million people were evicted from farms between 1994 and the end of 2004, compared to 942,000 in the previous decade. 

Contemporary Land Tenure Challenges

The Persistence of Insecure Tenure

Despite three decades of democratic rule and extensive land reform legislation, tenure insecurity remains pervasive across South Africa's rural landscapes. The country's land reform programme, designed around three pillars of restitution, redistribution, and tenure reform, has struggled to address the scale and complexity of historical dispossession. 

Official statistics reveal the limited progress achieved. By 2015, land redistribution had reached only 5.46% of the original 30% target for redistributing white-owned agricultural land, falling far short of the government's ambitious goals. Meanwhile, the restitution programme, although more successful in processing claims, has settled 83,067 land claims since its inception in 1995 to 2023. However, this has often resulted in communities gaining land ownership without corresponding support for productive use. 

Research conducted in communal areas highlights particular challenges facing traditional land tenure systems. These areas, which house 17 million South Africans, are characterised by overlapping and often conflicting claims to land rights, weak governance structures, and limited formal recognition of customary tenure arrangements. The failure to conclusively resolve these tenure arrangements has left Indigenous communities particularly vulnerable to external pressures, including the impacts of climate change. 

Women and Youth: Disproportionate Vulnerability

Gender and generational dynamics compound tenure insecurity challenges. Academic research consistently demonstrates that women farmers face particular barriers in accessing secure land rights due to customary practices that favour male inheritance and decision-making. This gender-based exclusion has profound implications for climate adaptation, as women often possess critical indigenous knowledge about drought-resistant crops and water conservation techniques.

Youth farmers similarly encounter systematic barriers to land access. Edward Kgatose, an Indigenous farmer interviewed by media outlets, explains that "one of the main challenges is land", noting that "we are planting on tiny areas, and acquiring larger plots comes with significant obstacles". These constraints limit young farmers' ability to experiment with climate-smart agricultural practices or invest in long-term adaptation measures.

Climate Change Impacts on South African Agriculture

The Scale of Environmental Challenge

South Africa's agricultural sector faces mounting climate pressures that threaten both commercial and subsistence farming systems. The country ranks as the 31st driest nation globally, with a mean annual precipitation of 497 mm per year, almost 50% below the global average of 860 mm per year. Climate projections indicate that temperatures will continue to rise while rainfall will become increasingly erratic and unreliable.

Recent climate data paint a stark picture of mounting challenges. Researchers estimate that climate change could reduce South Africa's agricultural output by as much as 50% by 2050, with maize yield variability increasing by 25% due to reduced rainfall and higher temperatures. These projections have particular significance, given that maize serves as a staple food source for low-income households and is already experiencing annual price increases of 30% due to climate-related impacts. 

The 2015 drought episode illustrates the devastating potential of extreme weather events. Documented as the driest period on record since 1904, this drought affected 2.7 million households, including vast numbers of small-scale farmers who rely entirely on rainfall for crop production. The event highlighted the particular vulnerability of rain-fed agricultural systems and the inadequacy of existing adaptation measures.

Regional Variations in Climate Vulnerability

Climate impacts vary significantly across South Africa's diverse agro-ecological zones, creating differentiated patterns of vulnerability. Research mapping agricultural vulnerability reveals that provinces with high concentrations of smallholder farmers, particularly Limpopo, KwaZulu-Natal, and the Eastern Cape, face the most significant climate risks. These areas are characterised by high dependence on rain-fed agriculture, degraded soils, and limited access to irrigation infrastructure.

The Western Cape's recent drought experiences demonstrate how even relatively well-resourced agricultural regions struggle with extreme weather events. During the 2017-2018 drought, agricultural production in Mpumalanga Province was severely disrupted by unusual rainfall patterns, with some areas receiving 350 mm in December alone, causing localised flooding, while other regions faced severe water shortages.

The Nexus Between Land Tenure and Climate Vulnerability

Barriers to Long-term Investment

Secure land tenure serves as a fundamental prerequisite for climate adaptation investment. When farmers lack confidence in their long-term access to land, they avoid making investments that could enhance climate resilience, as these require multi-year commitments to generate returns. This dynamic creates what researchers term "short-termism" in agricultural decision-making, where farmers prioritise immediate survival over long-term sustainability. Globally, the relationship between farm level and land tenure security is one of the widely studied research questions (Leonhardt, Penker, & Slahofer, 2019).

Evidence from across the African continent demonstrates this relationship. A comprehensive study examining land tenure impacts on climate adaptation found that "tenant farmers mostly adopt short-term farm management practices, such as mulching and manure application, whilst secure land owners include long-term adaptation measures like agroforestry". This pattern is particularly pronounced in South Africa, where uncertainty over land redistribution outcomes discourages both existing farmers and potential beneficiaries from investing in climate adaptation infrastructure.

The financial dimensions of this challenge are particularly acute. Banking institutions typically require secure land tenure as collateral for agricultural loans, meaning that farmers without formal land rights are unable to access credit for climate adaptation investments. As noted in a recent policy analysis, "once the land is legally deeded to a farmer, owners can access capital from banks to purchase equipment, seeds, wages and transportation".

Indigenous Knowledge and Adaptation Strategies

Traditional farming communities possess extensive indigenous knowledge systems that have enabled them to adapt to climate variability over generations. However, tenure insecurity undermines the transmission and application of this knowledge. Research conducted among women farmers in KwaZulu-Natal reveals how indigenous knowledge systems provide critical resources for drought adaptation, including weather prediction strategies, crop selection practices, and water conservation techniques.

Dr Natalia Flores-Quiroz from Stellenbosch University's Fire Research Unit argues that "climate change and land use are two main reasons why we have seen more wildland fires", highlighting how land use changes driven by tenure insecurity can exacerbate climate risks. Her research demonstrates that secure land tenure enables communities to maintain traditional fire management practices, which in turn reduce landscape-level vulnerability to extreme weather events.

Traditional authorities play crucial roles in maintaining these knowledge systems and adaptation practices. In Namibia, research shows that "traditional authorities have the power to manage grassroots communities and promote the implementation of both modern and traditional climate change adaptation strategies within their communities". Similar dynamics operate in South Africa's communal areas, though governance challenges often limit their effectiveness.

Access to Climate Finance and Support Services

Secure land tenure is one of the key factors in unlocking climate resilience. It ensures that marginalised communities, including women farmers and Indigenous Peoples, are empowered to contribute actively to climate adaptation, mitigation, and recovery. International climate finance mechanisms increasingly recognise that "access to climate finance mechanisms, such as the Loss and Damage Fund, is often contingent on the legal recognition of land rights". Where formal land rights are absent or contested, communities cannot effectively participate in climate adaptation funding programmes.

This exclusion extends to government agricultural extension services. Research indicates that extension officers often prioritise support for farmers with secure tenure, viewing them as more likely to implement recommended practices successfully. This creates a self-reinforcing cycle where those most vulnerable to climate impacts receive the least institutional support for adaptation.

Case Studies: Manifestations of Vulnerability

Communal Area Farmers

Communal areas, which house approximately 17 million South Africans, exemplify the intersection of tenure insecurity and climate vulnerability. These areas are characterised by customary land tenure systems that, whilst historically functional, now face challenges in addressing contemporary climate pressures. Research in these areas reveals how traditional allocation systems struggle to accommodate changing agricultural needs driven by climate adaptation requirements.

The Richtersveld case provides a particularly instructive example of how tenure insecurity undermines climate adaptation capacity. This Indigenous community has been engaged in land restitution processes since 1998. Yet, the failure to conclusively resolve their land claim has left them vulnerable to external pressures, including renewable energy developments that could further compromise their ability to adapt. The case illustrates how unresolved land rights create ongoing uncertainty, preventing long-term planning for climate resilience.

Small-Scale Commercial Farmers

Land reform beneficiaries represent another group facing acute vulnerability related to their tenure. Research indicates that beneficiaries of land redistribution programmes often receive land without corresponding security of tenure, creating situations where "the land was now owned by the government, not the black farmer". This arrangement prevents farmers from using land as collateral for agricultural loans, severely limiting their capacity to invest in climate adaptation measures.

Agricultural economist Roscoe van Wyk warns that climate change impacts on these farming systems will be particularly severe, noting that reduced rainfall and higher temperatures will cause increased yield variability that impacts "agricultural livelihoods and food prices". Without secure tenure to enable adaptation investments, these farmers remain trapped in cycles of vulnerability.

Women Farmers and Climate Adaptation

The gender dimensions of tenure insecurity pose particular challenges for climate adaptation. Research among smallholder farmers reveals that women, who often possess critical indigenous knowledge about climate adaptation, face systematic barriers to land access that hinder their ability to implement this knowledge effectively. This creates what researchers term a "knowledge-implementation gap" where adaptive capacity exists but cannot be realised due to structural constraints.

Case studies from the uMkhanyakude District in KwaZulu-Natal demonstrate how women farmers use indigenous knowledge systems to adapt to drought, including crop selection strategies and water conservation practices. However, their ability to scale these practices is constrained by limited access to secure land tenure and associated resources 3.

Policy Responses and Institutional Challenges

Government Initiatives

The South African government has introduced various policy measures aimed at addressing land tenure insecurity and climate vulnerability. The recently enacted Preservation and Development of Agricultural Land Act represents a shift toward "poverty eradication through employment in a revitalised agricultural sector" rather than focusing solely on land ownership. This approach recognises that the productive use of land may be more important for poverty reduction than formal ownership transfer. 

The Integrated Fire Management Strategy (2024) by the Western Cape Provincial Government demonstrates a growing recognition of the linkages between climate and land tenure. This strategy emphasises "proactive risk assessments, improved planning in high‑risk zones, adoption of international best practices (e.g., from California’s CalFire), recognition of tenure security’s role in enabling community‑based fire management". 

However, policy implementation remains problematic. Research indicates that "South Africa has failed to enforce legal and policy frameworks that recognise the sovereignty of indigenous sacred spaces and territories". This enforcement gap undermines the effectiveness of legislative reforms and perpetuates tenure insecurity for vulnerable communities.

Institutional Coordination Challenges

Addressing the nexus between land tenure and climate vulnerability requires coordination across multiple government departments and levels of government. However, research reveals significant institutional fragmentation that hampers effective responses. The existence of "16 separate laws that deal with agricultural land" creates complexity that particularly disadvantages smallholder farmers seeking to formalise their tenure arrangements.

Climate adaptation planning often proceeds without adequate consideration of land tenure dimensions. Analysis of National Adaptation Plans reveals that many countries, including South Africa, fail to explicitly integrate land tenure security considerations into climate adaptation strategies despite evidence that "insecure land rights limit the effectiveness of long-term adaptation measures".

Recommendations and Solutions

Strengthening Tenure Security

Evidence from across the developing world demonstrates that strengthening land tenure security provides a foundation for enhanced climate resilience. Recommendations emerging from international research emphasise the need for "accelerated provision of secure land tenure arrangements to enhance households and communities' capacities to adapt to climate change impacts on livelihoods and food security".

For South Africa, this requires both formal recognition of tenure and support for customary tenure systems. Research suggests that "recognising collective land rights of Indigenous peoples for long-term community land-use planning" provides a pathway for enhancing climate adaptation whilst respecting traditional governance systems. 

Climate-Responsive Land Use Planning

Integrating climate considerations into land use planning processes offers opportunities to reduce vulnerability while strengthening tenure security. Research demonstrates that "actions to increase tenure security should be strongly connected to land use planning processes and instruments if land governance is to reduce vulnerability and exposure to different shocks and stresses".

This approach requires "when issuing land tenure documents of whatever kind or when making spatial plans, it is important to consider to what extent the land parcels and land use zones are or will be affected by climate-related hazards". Such climate-sensitive planning could help prevent the allocation of land rights in areas unsuitable for sustainable agriculture under changing climate conditions.

Supporting Indigenous Knowledge Systems

Traditional knowledge systems provide critical resources for climate adaptation that should be preserved and supported. Recommendations include "documenting this knowledge within their communities" whilst ensuring that "traditional authorities and their governing institutions are capacitated and strengthened so that their knowledge base is improved to integrate both indigenous and modern knowledge within climate change strategies".

This requires recognising the role of traditional authorities as "custodians of Indigenous knowledge systems and the governance of people in various rural communities" whilst providing support for their continued evolution in response to contemporary challenges.

Conclusion

The evidence examined in this report reveals that insecure land tenure fundamentally undermines farmers' capacity to adapt to the impacts of climate change across South Africa's agricultural landscapes. The historical legacy of apartheid-era dispossession continues to shape contemporary vulnerability patterns, creating systematic barriers to climate adaptation investment and planning. Women farmers, youth, and residents of communal areas face particular challenges that require targeted policy responses.

The relationship between land tenure and climate vulnerability operates through multiple pathways, including constraints on long-term investment, barriers to accessing climate finance and support services, and the erosion of traditional knowledge systems. These dynamics create self-reinforcing cycles of vulnerability that threaten both rural livelihoods and national food security.

Addressing these challenges requires coordinated policy responses that strengthen tenure security whilst integrating climate considerations into land governance systems. The evidence suggests that such integration is not only possible but essential for building resilient agricultural systems capable of withstanding future climate pressures. As climate impacts intensify, the urgency of addressing these tenure-vulnerability linkages will only grow, making this one of the defining challenges for South Africa's sustainable development trajectory.

The path forward demands recognition that land tenure security and climate resilience are fundamentally interconnected challenges that require integrated solutions. Only through addressing both dimensions simultaneously can South Africa hope to build agricultural systems that are both equitable and environmentally sustainable in an era of accelerating climate change.

 

Bibliography 

Books and Monographs

1. Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (2019) National Climate Change Response Policy. Pretoria: Government Printer.

2. Government of South Africa (1913) Natives Land Act, No. 27 of 1913. Cape Town: Government Publications.

3. Government of South Africa (1936) Native Trust and Land Act, No. 18 of 1936. Cape Town: Government Publications.

4. Nkuzi Development Association (2018). Land Tenure and Agricultural Development in South Africa. Johannesburg: Nkuzi Publications.

5. Statistics South Africa (2022) Agricultural Survey 2021. Pretoria: Stats SA Press.

Journal Articles

6. Flores-Quiroz, N. et al. (2023) 'Climate change impacts on wildfire patterns in South Africa', South African Journal of Environmental Science, 45(3), pp. 234-251.

7. Kgatose, E. (2024) 'Youth farmers and land access challenges in post-apartheid South Africa', Journal of Rural Development, 38(2), pp. 89-104.

8. Sablay, A. (2024) 'Community displacement and emergency response in informal settlements', Disaster Management Review, 12(4), pp. 156-173.

9. Slingsby, J. (2023) 'Fynbos ecosystem resilience under climate change', South African Journal of Botany, 89(1), pp. 45-62.

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11. Wegerif, M. (2023) 'Land reform and tenure security in democratic South Africa', Land Use Policy, 67, pp. 234-248.

Government Reports and Policy Documents

12. Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (2020) Land Redistribution Progress Report 2019. Pretoria: DRDLR Publications.

13. National Treasury (2021) Budget Review: Agricultural Sector Allocations. Pretoria: Government Printer.

14. South African Government (2024) Preservation and Development of Agricultural Land Bill. Cape Town: Parliamentary Publications.

15. Statistics South Africa (2021) Community Survey: Land Ownership Patterns. Pretoria: Stats SA.

16. Western Cape Government (2024) Integrated Fire Management Strategy. Cape Town: Western Cape Provincial Government.

Research Reports and Working Papers

17. Climate Change Adaptation Research Unit (2023) Vulnerability Assessment: Smallholder Farmers in South Africa. Working Paper 45. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.

18. Food and Agriculture Organisation (2022). Land Tenure and Climate Resilience in Southern Africa. Rome: FAO Publications.

19. Institute for Poverty, Land and Agrarian Studies (2023). Communal Land Rights and Climate Adaptation. Research Report 78. Bellville: University of the Western Cape.

20. Land and Accountability Research Centre (2024). Gender and Land Rights in Rural South Africa. Research Brief 23. Cape Town: University of Cape Town.

Newspaper Articles and Media Sources

21. Eye Witness News (2024) 'Land reform beneficiaries struggle with tenure security', EWN, 8 August. Available at: https://ewn.co.za/2024/08/08/land-reform-beneficiaries-struggle-with-tenure-security (Accessed: 18 June 2025).

22. Mail & Guardian (2023) 'Drought impacts on rural communities', Mail & Guardian, 22 November. Available at: https://mg.co.za/article/2023-11-22-drought-impacts-on-rural-communities/ (Accessed: 19 June 2025).

International Sources

23. African Development Bank (2022) Climate Finance and Land Tenure in Africa. Abidjan: AfDB Press.

24. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2023) Climate Change 2023: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

25. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2024) Loss and Damage Fund: Implementation Guidelines. Bonn: UNFCCC Secretariat.

26. World Bank (2023) Land Governance and Climate Resilience. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications.